Before the federal income tax was enacted in 1913 with the 16th Amendment, the U.S. government funded itself primarily through tariffs, excise taxes, and land sales. Beginning in the early 19th century, tariffs on imported goods served as the primary revenue source, allowing the government to collect funds on international trade without taxing citizens directly. Additionally, excise taxes were imposed on specific domestic items, like whiskey, as early as 1791. Revenue from selling public lands, especially after westward expansion, also helped finance government operations. This system, however, proved unstable, leading to discussions on alternative funding methods that eventually resulted in income tax.